We all have habits that we would like to see people continue and habits that we would like to see people stop. By people, I mean friends, family members, kids, or even ourselves. How can we get someone to stop throwing their recycling in the trash or to keep going to the gym with us?

Psychologists have been trying to answer these questions for years. One of the more famous “answers” is operant conditioning, or using punishments and reinforcements to influence behavior. In this video, we are going to be focusing on reinforcement, but not just any reinforcement - positive reinforcement. (Yes, there is a negative reinforcement, too.) I’ll discuss positive reinforcement, its effectiveness, and the reinforcement schedules psychologists have developed to make it more effective.

About Operant ConditioningWhat is Positive Reinforcement?Examples of Positive ReinforcementContinuous vs. Partial ReinforcementApplying Positive Reinforcement Across Various FieldsEffectiveness and Implications of Reinforcement vs. Punishment

About Operant Conditioning

What is Positive Reinforcement?

Examples of Positive Reinforcement

Continuous vs. Partial Reinforcement

Applying Positive Reinforcement Across Various Fields

Effectiveness and Implications of Reinforcement vs. Punishment

Of course, behavior isn’t always that simple. BF Skinner wanted to dig deeper into the motivations that lead people to perform certain behaviors and what could motivate them to curb others. In addition to the idea of positive and negative reinforcement, he also examined different schedules and how they affected the likelihood that a behavior would be performed again. We will get to the schedules in a minute; first, let’s talk about what positive reinforcement is and what it looks like in everyday life.

The Pigeon Experiment: A Window to Positive Reinforcement

Legacy of Skinner’s Work in Modern Context

Positive reinforcement involves introducing a favorable stimulus to encourage the repetition of a particular behavior. For instance, when a child is given a piece of candy each time they clean their room, this rewarding stimulus (candy) acts as an incentive, encouraging them to repeat the behavior (cleaning) in anticipation of receiving the reward again.

These are all examples of positive reinforcement that you might have witnessed or experienced:

There are a few ways to approach positive reinforcement. You can either offer continuous reinforcement or partial reinforcement. Most likely, you have experienced giving or receiving reinforcement through both of these schedules.

Continuous reinforcement is when a person or animal is given reinforcement every time they complete a behavior. This means your dog gets treated every time they “sit” on command. Your app says “good job” every time you finish a workout, without fail. Psychologists have found this is the best way to introduce a person or animal to a new behavior. Continuous reinforcement establishes the “way things work.”

On the other hand, partial reinforcement is a process in which the person or animal is sometimes given reinforcement. A parent may not have ice cream in the fridge whenever their child cleans their room. A coffee shop can’t afford to give out a free coffee whenever their customers buy one. Partial reinforcement, sometimes random and other times on a strict schedule, is less effective than continuous reinforcement but can still get the job done.

Reinforcement Schedules

Let’s break down partial reinforcement further. There are four different “schedules” that can be used to give out positive reinforcement:

These different schedules have a different level of effectiveness.

Schedules are based on the consistency of when the reward is delivered and how soon the reinforcement is delivered. In a fixed-ratio schedule, a person or animal is consistently given reinforcement after they have performed a behavior a certain amount of times. They are not given reinforcement every time, but they know they will always get the stimulus after the fourth, fifth, or tenth time they perform the behavior.

For example, the coffee shop that gives out a free coffee after purchasing nine coffees is on a fixed-ratio schedule. The customer knows they will get one for free after that ninth coffee.

But what if you didn’t know how many coffees you needed to buy before you qualified for a free one? This is a variable-ratio schedule. The reinforcement is distributed immediately after the behavior is performed several times, but those times vary. Let’s say you treat your dog five times after they “sit” on command. Then, you don’t give them another treat until they “sit” on command ten times. After that, you don’t give them another treat until they “sit” on command three times. While this may seem chaotic, it’s actually a very effective form of positive reinforcement.

Can you think of the most well-known, addictive example of a variable-ratio schedule? Here’s a hint: you’ll hit the jackpot if you get the right answer. That’s right! Slot machines are one of the best examples of this positive reinforcement schedule. You can’t guarantee when you’ll win the jackpot, but if you sit down long enough and keep playing, you eventually will. This is why casinos bring in so much money. People are willing to give up much time and cash for positive reinforcement.

However, experiments with animals may not involve paychecks or week-long periods between reinforcements. Instead, an animal in a lab may receive a treat every 10 minutes if they press on a lever. Every 10 minutes, that treat will be distributed, but only if the behavior is performed. During that time, the animal will find the motivation to press the lever.

There are some drawbacks to this reinforcement schedule. The animal may only be encouraged to perform the behavior at the nine-minute mark rather than immediately after receiving their reinforcement. If you told your child that they could play video games on Sunday as long as they did their chores, they may only be motivated to speed through the chores on Saturday night. Still, the behavior gets done.

The last reinforcement schedule is a variable-interval schedule. This is similar to the fixed-interval schedule, although the amount of time that has passed will vary. One week, you may tell your child they can play video games on Sunday only if their room is clean. Next week, that day might be Thursday. Next, it will be Wednesday. The person (or animal) performing the behavior does not know when the reinforcement is coming. Although they may not perform the behavior every day immediately, they will eventually develop a habit of performing that behavior.

Another example of a variable-interval schedule is a “surprise” evaluation from a manager at work. You get a free gift card if you have the right uniform or offer excellent service when the manager evaluates you. This schedule keeps people “on their toes.”

InClinical Psychology, positive reinforcement is crucial in developing and managing behaviors. An instance of this can be found in Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) therapy, commonly utilized for treating Autism Spectrum Disorder. Therapists reward socially appropriate behaviors, such as making eye contact or engaging in shared communication, thus gradually encouraging these actions. Through consistent and tailored application, this approach has demonstrated notable improvements in promoting beneficial behaviors among individuals with autism.

Lastly, inSelf-Management, positive reinforcement can substantially assist individuals in achieving goals and cultivating productive habits. For instance, establishing a personal reward system, such as indulging in a beloved activity upon completing a challenging task, can be a positive reinforcer to navigate procrastination and amplify productivity. Through structured and consistent application, positive reinforcement becomes a strategic tool in steering toward effective self-management and realizing personal goals.

Consequences and Criticisms of Punishment

Advocacy for Reinforcement Strategies

Related posts:Operant Conditioning (Examples + Research)Variable Interval Reinforcement Schedule (Examples)Schedules of Reinforcement (Examples)Fixed Ratio Reinforcement Schedule (Examples)Fixed Interval Reinforcement Schedule (Examples)

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